Irregular Migration to the United States: From Aberrations to Deportations

In 2023, an estimated 97,000 Indians arrived illegally in the U.S., taking complicated routes, traversing multiple countries or even oceans. India’s periodic labour force data offers an understanding of this desperation of people to risk life and limb to exit the country

Sona Singh

Pari Saikia

Picture used for representational purpose only

The term irregular migration has become common in local parlance, especially since the beginning of 2025, when news of nearly 18,000 Indian nationals in the U.S. facing final removal orders and immediate deportation made headlines. In February, three military planes carrying 388 irregular Indians arrived in Amritsar. It soon became clear that most of them had entered the U.S. without the required papers. According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), an irregular migrant is someone whose movement “takes place outside the laws, regulations, or international agreements governing the entry into or exit from the state of origin, transit, or destination.” 

Most irregular migration includes those individuals who have either been apprehended at sovereign borders, or those found overstaying their visas. In the case of India, the Minister of State, Kirti Vardhan Singh, while replying to a question on deportations in the Rajya Sabha, stated that the government does not maintain data on the number of people who may have entered the U.S. via irregular means and routes. Simply put, given that irregular migration involves people moving via very fraught and complicated routes, often traversing multiple countries or even oceans, understanding the numbers is complicated.  

Singh also provided a breakdown of  the 388 Indian nationals who had been deported to India. Of particular note was that 126 irregular migrants belonged to Punjab, 110 were from Haryana, 74 were from Gujarat, and 23 from other Indian states. According to data from the Pew Research Centre, nearly 725,000 undocumented Indians live in the United States. These numbers suggest two key things: first, irregular migration to the U.S. is high from the states of Punjab and Gujarat. Secondly, these numbers hint at a rise in asylum applications to the U.S. and Canada. 

Reports indicate that in 2023 alone, 97,000 Indians arrived in the U.S. in an irregular manner, either via Canada or Mexico. It has also been highlighted that Indians travelling to the U.S. in an irregular manner favour the Canadian route: as much as 43,764 Indians were caught at the Canadian border while crossing over to the U.S. in 2024. Many of those apprehended tend to  submit asylum applications afterward, owing to provisions for political asylum in the U.S. 

While analysing asylum applications made by Indians in the United States for a paper, the authors Abby Budiman and Devesh Kapur found that nearly 7% of the asylum seekers speak Gujarati, while a striking 60% are Punjabi-speaking. 

The above data leads to some pressing questions. Why is it that the states of Punjab and Gujarat, with literacy rates as high as 75.8 % and 79.31% respectively, are the origin locations for irregular migration to the U.S.?

The Curious Case of Irregular Migration from Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat to the U.S.

Some of the answers to this question are hidden in the performance of these states on specific indicators.

For instance, according to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) report- 2024, the unemployment rate in Gujarat is 3.1 percent. This figure runs counter to the state’s economic report card:  Gujarat ranks top amongst other Indian states in terms of Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP). However, salary income accounts for only 26% of household income, which is significantly lower than most Indian states, as per the India Human Development Survey.

Nearly 74% of the Gujarati workers lacked a written contract, compared to 64% workers in Haryana, as per the PLFS report from 2022. The “casualization of the workforce” has led to low salaries in the state. Part of the explanation of why workers are seeking to exit the state may lie in this contradiction of high economic progress but also having a large informal sector workforce.

The case of Punjab tells a slightly different story.

In Punjab, over 42 % of the working population is engaged in agricultural activities and the rest in non-agricultural sectors. It ranks 15 out of 32 states, with a per capita income of ₹ 1,54,313. The state benefits from agricultural productivity in addition to access to jobs with salaries. However, expanding agrarian challenges, the rising expense of farming, economic distress leading to more financial debts, and the dearth of business or alternative employment options have been driving Punjabi youths to migrate to the West. 

Pic credit: Wikipedia

It is intriguing that Punjab’s economically thriving Majha and Doaba regions have experienced most number of immigration to the West, followed by suicide-affected Malwa region. 

Furthermore, Punjab's unemployment rate was 6.89% in 2023, which is less than the 8.6% of the national average. According to a survey carried out by the German think tank Konrad Adenauer Stiftung and the Centre for Studying Developing Societies (CSDS)-Lokniti in December 2021, Punjabi youth in India are the most unsatisfied with employment prospects in their state. Punjab's employment prospects were assessed as “good” by just 2% of respondents, which is significantly less than the 15% national average.

Part of the story of Punjab hence seems to be that younger entrants into the workforce, who are disillusioned with their job prospects, are seeking respite overseas.

Finally, there is the case of Haryana. 

Haryana is similar to Punjab in terms of historical context, geographical position, agriculture, caste structure, or unemployment growth. Both states also share Chandigarh, a union territory, as their common capital. Following Punjab's migration trend, the rice bowl districts of Karnal and Kurukshetra witnessed many young people fall into the trap of debt to pursue American dreams. Unlike Punjabis, the people of Haryana mostly preferred Mexico as the route to their final destination, the USA.

Pic credit: Wikipedia

In the case of Haryana, the reasons people are seeking to exit the state via irregular routes point mostly to a dearth of jobs for eligible candidates, poor economic policies, a mismatch between  skill sets to fulfil job requirements in the labour market, and government apathy. As a result, Haryana's rural youth are unemployed and looking with some urgency for other pathways to eke out a living. According to the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy’s December 2022 report, Haryana had India's highest unemployment rate, at 37.4%.

The Journey into Irregularity 

According to S. Irudaya Rajan, Chair, International Institute of Migration and Development, Kerala, “Un-documentation is a global phenomenon not limited to South Asia. While leaving one’s home to make a better life in a foreign country is not wrong,” Rajan says, “it is the irregular manner in which many people leave which is problematic.”

Pic credit: Wikipedia

Historically, the tradition of sending migrants from India began during the 19th century. Much of this movement was shaped by trade, colonialism, the movement of labour, and the evolution of modern economic opportunities. The demand for workers on plantations rose with the abolition of slavery in 1833, leading to a large flow of indentured Indian workers into the British colonies.  Post-independence India witnessed a significant wave of Indians who migrated to countries like the United Kingdom, and belonged mostly from Punjab. They continued to bridge labour shortages until 1962 and 1971, when immigration laws in the UK were tightened.  Along with the desire for a life overseas, the aforementioned factors were part of the history of why people from South Asia, including India, began  experimenting with irregularity. 

An incident that highlighted the issue of irregular migration in the public eye occurred in 1996, when 290 people lost their lives while trying to enter the Italian waters in Malta. Nearly 170 individuals on this boat were from Punjab. In April 2002, another overloaded boat carrying 30 youths from the Doaba region of Punjab capsized near Turkey. Similar news of Gujaratis dying while crossing the US-Canada border has also come to light, thereby raising questions about why so many Indians are choosing irregular migration pathways. 

Tracing a migrant’s journey into irregularity, Professor Suneel Kumar from the Department of Political Science, University of Jammu, believes it begins with smuggling. “Most agents involved in irregular migration are travel agents located in small towns. They never divulge the correct information to their clients, saying that everything will be done “ek-numbri” (legally). A majority of the individuals who end up becoming irregular are illiterate and lack access to information, thus being vulnerable to manipulation and exploitation. These individuals are often given incorrect information about work visas and policies in different countries by actors such as recruitment agents, sub-agents, and other middlemen, most of whom are informal. “Most of the time, their consent is taken after providing deceptive information,” Kumar tells The Migration Story. 

Factors Driving Irregular Migration 

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An initial analysis from secondary sources and work by migration scholars indicates that the cases of Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat to the U.S. are intriguing ones, since they do not comprise the same group of low-wage workers who, for instance, emigrate to West Asia for construction sector jobs or low-paying jobs in other sectors which are often still better remunerated than options back home. Instead, the case of these three states comprises individuals from risk-taking agrarian communities, and workers who are relatively better off than their lower-paid counterparts emigrating to the Gulf states. Instead, individuals from these states have land assets, but seek out these irregular pathways because agriculture has become unviable over the years, thereby pushing them to seek a better life overseas. It is hence also a story of a dearth of viable job options, however, those emigrating, although with urgency, are marginally better off than poorer counterparts choosing to move to West Asia.

A more deep-dive analysis of the potential reasons behind irregular migration specifically from these states into the U.S thus brings up a mixed bag of issues. These include changes in agriculture and cropping patterns, along with aspiration among the rural populations for a better life overseas.

A draft paper titled “International Migration from Gujarat: Magnitude, Process and Impact”, puts the emigration figures from Gujarat during 2007-08 at 3 per 1000 population, which increased to 8 per 1000 population in 2012. There were 11 households with emigrants per 1000 households in 2007-08, which increased to 27 households per 1000 households. The study highlighted that a majority of the emigrants were from rural areas, which reflects the higher aspiration among the rural population to migrate, owing to a lack of better opportunities at home. The paper also delves into how emigration occurs mainly from skilled and semi-skilled groups with low levels of education, which is indicative of a shift from professional, technical and business-related migration to labour migration in the recent decades.

According to a report on irregular migration from Punjab to the European Union in 2013, the central Doaba region has had a tradition of migration, owing to a mix of push factors like unprofitable agriculture, under employment and unemployment, social restrictions along with pull factors like better opportunities for education and employment, good lifestyle, presence of family members and relatives. However, the paper argues that this increase in migration from the region is accompanied by an unfortunate increase in irregular migration. 

In a study on the smuggling of migrants from Punjab and Haryana to the UK, the data revealed that an estimated 20,000 youth attempted to migrate irregularly each year owing to regular migration options for unskilled migrants being limited.

A recent report by Niskanen Center, a U.Ṣ-based think tank, highlights how irregular Indian migration to the U.S. is geographically isolated, and most Indian migrants hail from the northern states of Haryana and Punjab. The driving force behind irregular migration from these states, according to this report is threefold: a lack of viable options for acquiring a U.S. work visa; concerns about Sikhs, and the rise in land prices in the region, which has enabled migrants to sell their land and afford the costly journey. 

According to Dr. Kumar, the rising cases of irregular migration can be traced to the decline of agriculture becoming unviable. In a paper written in 2013, Kumar had traced the link between the rise in irregular routes to the agrarian crisis, along with the high risk-taking ability of some agrarian castes and the low level of education in rural areas, which fuels the “illicit business of human trafficking of Punjabis to foreign green pastures.” 

Today, 12 years later, Kumar sticks to this thesis, arguing that those seeking irregular routes today mostly belong to the rural agrarian communities, especially the Jatt Sikh community. “These individuals were earlier dependent on agriculture, or serving in the Indian Army as the mainstay of their income. However, changes in cropping patterns and agriculture becoming non-profitable over the years, along with the decrease in job opportunities in the Indian Army, are some reasons for this irregular migration,” Kumar tells The Migration Story. 

Further breaking down the background these irregular migrants come from Kumar says, “Most individuals belong to rural areas and are not very educated, mostly small farmers, and none of them are from the business community. What motivates them to choose a life abroad is the success stories of the relatives and neighbours settled overseas, which are relayed during family functions and social meetups.” 

He also highlights how many young individuals from Punjab’s neighbouring state, Haryana, are attracted by the lifestyle of the West and want to replicate the same. Kumar says, “There is a copycat mentality at play, according to which the pull for a life in the West has spread to neighbouring areas in states like Himachal and Haryana, which share borders with Punjab, and that is why you see so many of the deportees being from these states too.”

Drawing parallels with Gujarat, Kumar observes, “Most of the people choosing irregular migration from Gujarat are the Patidars, who seek better economic opportunities. While economic reasons were the push for settling overseas earlier, too, there has been a change in how the youth want to settle in foreign lands today. Earlier migrants from Punjab would buy land in their hometowns and villages with the money they earned in dollars. But this trend has now changed, and more people now prefer settling abroad.” 

Diagnosing Irregular Migration Due to Job Scarcity Versus Extreme Poverty  

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Given the above context, the success of the Gujarat model, driven by rapid industrialisation and infrastructure projects, is now being questioned. Despite the state having a growth rate of 19.28%, Gujaratis are taking irregular routes to travel overseas. According to a new paper by Jafferlot, Rajahmani, and Bharadwaj, this trend is the result of unequal development across the state. Despite Gujarat having invested more in infrastructure than human resources, it lacks a proper university system. The paper highlights that Gujaratis have a relatively higher level of education and are economic immigrants facing limited economic opportunities at home. The lack of correlation between corporate growth and employment creation at the base level is another weakness of the model that has emerged. 

Stories of deported Indians revealed that they spent between Rs 40 lakh to Rs. 1 crore to travel to foreign lands via irregular means. This has happened owing to an increase in land prices, which are pledged or sold for money and a passage abroad in the face of job scarcity back home.

Rajan, meanwhile, says this money could have been used to make livelihoods and generate employment and revenue within the country itself.  

There is an increased trend being witnessed involving aspirations to travel and settle in a foreign land: these days, everyone is attracted towards the U.S. and the West. Both the above-mentioned scholars and Rajan observe that the case of migrants from Gujarat and Punjab choosing irregular migration pathways does not stem from extreme poverty, as is the case with migrants from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.  

Dr. Kumar also told The Migration Story, “Look at how Punjab attracts workers from states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar to work in its farms, while Punjabis travel to the West to work in the farmlands of Europe and do basic chores in the U.S. This shows that everyone wants a better life… Everyone wants more. Everyone is competing with their neighbours and relatives.”

The Role of the Diaspora 

The Indian diaspora overseas also plays a role in irregular migration.

For instance, various  stories of relatives and kin settled abroad are narrated during family gatherings and events, thereby creating a desire among many who seek a better life overseas. Rajan, however, argues that diaspora networks do not directly facilitate irregular migration, but they do provide support once these people reach the destination countries. 

Kumar, meanwhile, has a word of caution for those trusting their diaspora networks. In countries like Italy, “Capos”, or illegal intermediaries, exploit migrant workers in the agricultural sector, violating minimum wages, and imposing inhumane working conditions. He says, “While diaspora connections do help these migrants settle in a foreign country, there have been incidents of Indian Capos exploiting their countrymen as in the case of Italy. Most of the agricultural farms in Texas are cultivated by an irregular workforce.” 

Rajan echoes Kumar’s sentiment. “While helpful, diaspora networks might create possibilities for exploitation, as has been reported from countries like Italy, Portugal and others. There is a lot of misinformation, which is exploited by the labour mafia who sell foreign dreams. Innocent people are being duped with false promises and hopes along with a communication gap,” he says.

The Role of Transnational Criminal networks 

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The stories of Indians using irregular channels have reiterated the urgent need for safe migration pathways, while also raising questions about how irregular migration is normalised in these states. Recent news of Indian deportees has brought focus on some important issues like the need for effective monitoring of travel agents, legislative gaps in India’s emigration law, and problems in data collection of irregular migration. Questions are also being asked about the plausible transnational connections between agents. 

Kumar, while agreeing that the agents and facilitators in the villages have links with transnational networks, says this is not community based work and agents belonging to different backgrounds are involved at different levels across locations. “At the local level, you have Punjabi agents, but in bigger cities, these agents are from different locations,” he says. 

The Need for Safe Migration Pathways 

The recent spate of deportations has raised questions about the need to reform the existing law on emigration, which is in sync with the realities and needs of Indian emigrants in the 21st century, along with creating an enabling framework that promotes safe, regular migration avenues for those seeking employment overseas. The bill also proposes a Protector of Emigrants office in hotspot states, like Punjab, and Gujarat. 

Rajan, meanwhile, feels that we need further research on irregularity in order to identify gaps in the data and understand the motivations which push people into dangerous life choices and harrowing journeys. He feels efforts must be made to collect data and conduct research, along with planning awareness initiatives. Throwing light upon the need for data to make evidence-based policies, he says, “We need to do some groundwork to understand the hotspot regions, and make better informed policies. This is important because, while on the one hand, we say that India is doing well on so many parameters,  this irregular movement of people leaving the country gives a contrary signal,” he cautions. 

Simply put, the recent deportations from the United States are not a good sign. Rajan has an additional world of caution. 

“Imagine a scenario when another country follows the U.S. example, and starts deporting irregular migrants as well. Leaving your country for opportunities is alright, but leaving in an undocumented manner raises questions. We need to ask questions about what is pushing these people to leave.” 

Edited by Namrata Raju

Dr Sona Singh is an Assistant Professor at Lloyd Law College. She writes and researches on human trafficking, gender, modern slavery and migration. 

 Pari Saikia is an independent human trafficking journalist and documentarian from New Delhi, India. She has been reporting on human trafficking, forced migration, refugees, slavery, labour rights, for more than a decade.